Long-term sympathectomy induces sensory and parasympathetic fibres sprouting, and mast cell activation in the rat dura mater

Bergerot, A; Aubineau, P; (1998) Long-term sympathectomy induces sensory and parasympathetic fibres sprouting, and mast cell activation in the rat dura mater. EUR J NEUROSCI , 10 79 - 79. 

http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/1330488/

Lewis rats are much more likely to develop autoimmune disorders after sympathectomy

Lewis rats are much more likely to develop autoimmune disorders after sympathectomy 
(Dimitrova and Felten, 1995). This finding suggests that if sympathetic regulation were impaired in a 
genetically predisposed individual, an autoimmune disease might develop.  
Betrayal by the Brain: The Neurologic Basis of Chronic Fatigue Syndrome, Fibromyalgia Syndrome and Related Neural Network Disorders  
by Jay A. Goldstein  

published by The Haworth Medical Press, 1996

significant change after sympathectomy: reduced sympathetic and increased vagal tone

The HRV analysis showed a significant change of indices reflecting sympatho-vagal balance indicating significantly reduced sympathetic (LF) and increased vagal (HF, rMSSD) tone. These changes still persisted after 2 years. Global HRV increased over time with significant elevation of SDANN after 2 years. QT dispersion was significantly reduced 1 month after surgery and the dispersion was further diminished 2 years later.

http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0167527399001011

"sympathectomy is a form of sensory neurectomy" (p. 1500)

Bonica's Management of Pain Scott Fishman, Jane Ballantyne, James P. Rathmell Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2010 - Medical - 1661 pages

sympathectomized arteries become more susceptible to lipid accumulation

Combined effect of cholesterol feeding and sympathectomy on the lipid content in rabbit aortas

Atherosclerosis

Volume 37, Issue 4, December 1980, Pages 521–528

Decreased HRV is predictive of adverse cardiovascular outcomes in a variety of disease states

Water immersion-induced skin wrinkling (WISW) is dependent on intact peripheral sympathetic function. WISW was hypothesized to reflect autonomic function in subjects with- out peripheral neuropathy. We prospectively studied 70 healthy subjects (aged 31 88 years, 63% females) without cardiovascular risk factors or neurological disease. All sub- jects underwent short-term heart rate variability (HRV) stud- ies. Time and frequency domain variables were derived in- cluding the HRV index. WISW was graded using a previously validated scale of 1–4 of which 18.6% of subjects exhibited grade 1 (minimal) WISW and 35.7% had grade 2 WISW. On multivariate analysis using the HRV index, WISW was inde- pendently related to height and the HRV index. We conclude that WISW is related to central autonomic function.

Although the mechanism is not fully understood, WISW is felt to be caused by passive diffusion of water across the stratum corneum into the sweat ducts, which in turn alters electrolyte balance, decreases membrane stabilization, increases sympathetic neural firing and stimulates vasoconstriction [1–3, 8].WISW is decreased in diabetic patients and in patients after cervical sympathectomy [4, 9].

Heart rate variability (HRV) is the beat-to-beat variation in cardiac cycle length due to autonomic influence on the sinus node. Decreased HRV is predictive of adverse cardiovascular outcomes in a variety of disease states[5]. The influence of the central nervous system activity on autonomic function suggests that HRV may be a useful prognostic indicator in patients with cerebrovascular events [6].

Cardiology 2010;116:247–250 DOI: 10.1159/000316043

Received: May 10, 2010

Accepted after revision: May 28, 2010 Published online: August 18, 2010 

sympathectomy led to an exacerbation of colitis

Substance P (SP) is a pro-inflammatory neuropeptide in colitis, whereas sympathetic neurotransmitters are anti-inflammatory at high concentrations.

Results: In all layers, Crohn’s disease patients demonstrated a loss of sympathetic nerve fibres. Sprouting of SP+ nerve fibres was particularly observed in the mucosa and muscular layer in Crohn’s disease. SEMA3C was detected in epithelial cells, and there was a marked increase of SEMA3C-positive crypts in the mucosa of Crohn’s disease patients compared to controls. In Crohn’s disease, the number of SEMA3C-positive crypts was negatively related to the density of mucosal sympathetic nerve fibres. Sympathectomy reduced acute DSS colitis but increased chronic DSS colitis. Sympathectomy also increased chronic colitis in Il10−/−mice.

Gut 2008;57:911-921 doi:10.1136/gut.2007.125401

Natural bodily functioning does not include “purely autonomic” or “purely somatic” responses, just as it does not include ‘purely sympathetic” or “purely parasympathetic” responses

Langley initially expected to find afferent cell bodies in autonomic ganglia, with projections to other ganglia. He believed that activation of these “autonomic afferents” should lead to purely autonomic responses. However Langley’s own careful work demonstrated that there were no such neurons.

The fundamentally important point is that integrative processes responsible for the organization of visceral function occur principally within the central nervous system (brain and/or spinal cord). Both somatic and visceral afferents result in complex, brain mediated, responses that include somatic and visceral function. Autonomic motor activity can be generated by both somatic and visceral inputs to the CNS, and visceral inputs to the CNS initiate responses that are both somatic and autonomic. Natural bodily functioning does not include “purely autonomic” or “purely somatic” responses, just as it does not include ‘purely sympathetic” or “purely parasympathetic” responses.

Bill Blessing and Ian Gibbins (2008), Scholarpedia, 3(7):2787.

revision #46085 [link to/cite this article]

Curator: Dr. Bill Blessing, Centre for Neuroscience, Flinders University, Adelaide, AUSTRALIA

electric stimulation of the sympathetic cord in the upper thoracic level on the middle cerebral artery blood flow velocity

The effect of electric stimulation of the sympathetic cord in the upper thoracic level on the middle cerebral artery blood flow velocity (V(MCA)) in humans was examined using transcranial Doppler sonography monitoring during surgery for palmar hyperhidrosis. Sympathetic stimulation resulted in marked and rapid increases Of V(MCA). The responses were preceded by prompt increases of mean arterial blood pressure (MABP) and heart rate (HR). Division of the sympathetic cord cranially or caudally to the stimulation site partially reduced the V(MCA), MABP and HR responses. Both these operations reduced sympathetic pathways to the heart as reflected by a decrease in HR and MABP. The integrity of the sympathetic pathway from the stimulation site through the superior cervical ganglion and the carotid plexus was not a prerequisite for a V(MCA) response. Our data suggest that the V(MCA) increase mainly results from stimulation of the heart and the cardiovascular system, resulting in marked increases of blood pressure and heart rate.

CEREBROVASCULAR DISEASES Volume: 2 Issue: 6 Pages: 359-364 Published: NOV-DEC 1992

catecholamine released from sympathetic nerves, acquires the capacity to activate pain pathways after tissue or nerve injury

What Is Reflex Sympathetic Dystrophy Syndrome or RSD?: "According to the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS), RSD is "a chronic pain condition that is believed to be the result of dysfunction in the central or peripheral nervous systems." According to MedicineNet, RSD involves "irritation and abnormal excitation of nervous tissue, leading to abnormal impulses along nerves that affect blood vessels and skin."

Animal studies indicate that norepinephrine, a catecholamine released from sympathetic nerves, acquires the capacity to activate pain pathways after tissue or nerve injury, resulting in RSD. Another theory suggests that RSD, which follows an injury, is caused by triggering an immune response and symptoms associated with inflammation"
http://arthritis.about.com/od/rsd/a/rsd.htm

Neuralgia due to sympathectomy

Depending on the skill of the surgeon and difficulty encountered performing various intraoperative maneuvers, the incidence of complications following sympathectomy should be the same as that following any other extraperitoneal or extrapleural operation. However, a frequent complication following sympathectomy, and one which is apparently unrelated to operative technique, is that of postsympathectomy neuralgia.

This neuralgia is characterized by aching thigh pain after lumbar sympathectomy or aching shoulder and arm pain after cervical sympathectomy. The pain is intense in severity, sudden in onset and disappearance, and not related to any major neurologic manifestations.

Recently we have reviewed the files of the Vascular Surgical Service at the West Roxbury Veteran's Hospital and the literature on this condition. This report is a presentation of our findings.

Incidence  Pain following sympathectomy has been described as "an all too common complaint."⁸ Reports have varied in incidence from 2.1% to "practically every case."

http://archsurg.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=560162

Cerebral sympathetic nerve activity has a major regulatory role in the cerebral circulation in REM sleep

Cassaglia PA, Griffiths RI, Walker AM.

Source

Ritchie Centre for Baby Health Research, Monash Institute of Medical Research, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia.

Abstract

Sympathetic nerve activity (SNA) in neurons projecting to skeletal muscle blood vessels increases during rapid-eye-movement (REM) sleep, substantially exceeding SNA of non-REM (NREM) sleep and quiet wakefulness (QW). Similar SNA increases to cerebral blood vessels may regulate the cerebral circulation in REM sleep, but this is unknown. We hypothesized that cerebral SNA increases during phasic REM sleep, constricting cerebral vessels as a protective mechanism against cerebral hyperperfusion during the large arterial pressure surges that characterize this sleep state. We tested this hypothesis using a newly developed model to continuously record SNA in the superior cervical ganglion (SCG) before, during, and after arterial pressure surges occurring during REM in spontaneously sleeping lambs. Arterial pressure (AP), intracranial pressure (ICP), cerebral blood flow (CBF), cerebral vascular resistance [CVR = (AP - ICP)/CBF], and SNA from the SCG were recorded in lambs (n = 5) undergoing spontaneous sleep-wake cycles. In REM sleep, CBF was greatest (REM > QW = NREM, P < 0.05) and CVR was least (REM < QW = NREM, P < 0.05). SNA in the SCG did not change from QW to NREM sleep but increased during tonic REM sleep, with a further increase during phasic REM sleep (phasic REM > tonic REM > QW = NREM, P < 0.05). Coherent averaging revealed that SNA increases preceded AP surges in phasic REM sleep by 12 s (P < 0.05). We report the first recordings of cerebral SNA during natural sleep-wake cycles. SNA increases markedly during tonic REM sleep, and further in phasic REM sleep. As SNA increases precede AP surges, they may serve to protect the brain against potentially damaging intravascular pressure changes or hyperperfusion in REM sleep.

Comment in

• Have a safe night: intimate protection against cerebral hyperperfusion during REM sleep. [J Appl Physiol. 2009]

PMID:

 

19150858

 

[PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE] 

Free full text

Autonomic neuropathy in the skin following sympathectomy

In diabetics with the anhidrotic syndrome, autonomic nerve fibres were studied in skin biopsies using argentic techniques and light microscopy. The Minor test was used to differentiate normal from anhidrotic skin areas. In the anhidrotic areas, histology of the nerve fibres showed beading, spindle-shaped thickening and fragmentation adjacent to the sweat glands. These changes were similar to those observed in two patients who had previously undergone lumbar sympathectomy. No abnormalities of the sympathetic nerve endings could be found in biopsies taken from normal areas of the forearm of the same patients. We conclude that the diabetic anhidrotic syndrome, a form of diabetic autonomic neuropathy, is due to a lesion of the sympathetic nerve supply to the skin.

I. Faerman¹, E. Faccio³, I. Calb², J. Razumny¹, N. Franco², A. Dominguez² and H. A. Podestá¹

Diabetologia

Volume 22, Number 2 / February, 1982

ciliospinal center may extend to T5

The ciliospinal reflex (pupillary-skin reflex) consists of dilation of the ipsilateral pupil in response to pain applied to the neck, face, and upper trunk. If the right side of the neck is subjected to a painful stimulus, the right pupil dilates (increases in size 1-2mm from baseline). This reflex is absent in Horner's syndrome and lesions involving the cervical sympathetic fibers. The enhanced ciliospinal reflex in asymptomatic patients with cluster headache is due to preganglionic sympathetic mechanisms.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ciliospinal_reflex

The cilio-spinal center is not sharply confined to TI spinal level, but may extend downwards as low as T5

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1396202/pdf/annsurg00366-0044.pdf

Endoscopic sympathectomy is not minimally invasive - doing the same operation through a smaller incision is not necessarily less invasive

The term ‘‘minimally invasive surgery’’ was initially applied to coelioscopic procedures such as laparoscopic cholecystectomy and hernia repair, thoracoscopic sympathectomy, and arthroscopy, but has since been abandoned, because doing the same operation through a smaller incision is not necessarily less invasive. The term ‘‘minimally invasive parathyroidectomy’’ does not fully convey the nature of the techniques, and, as previously debated in the wider field of minimal-access surgery, carries connotations of increased safety that are not necessarily supported by the existing data [12].

Surg Clin N Am 84 (2004) 717–734

F. Fausto Palazzo, MS, FRCS(Gen),
Leigh W. Delbridge, MD, FACS*

Department of Surgery, Royal North Shore Hospital, Sydney 2065, NSW, Australia

progressive hemifacial atrophy following sympathectomy for hyperhidrosis

Some authors consider the disease a variant of mor- phea because the histologic changes are identical to deep scleroderma.2 The possible etiologies include sympathetic denervation, trauma, vascular malformations, immunologic abnormality, heredi- tary disease, or infection by a slow virus.3 To our knowledge, this is the first report of a young patient with a possible association between Parry-Romberg syndrome and thoracoscopic sympathectomy.

Theoretically, thoracoscopic sympathectomy may cause 2 of the aforementioned etiologies of Parry- Romberg syndrome: sympathetic denervation and trauma. Thoracoscopic sympathectomy is a surgical technique for the treatment of palmar hyperhidrosis.

The operation ablates the upper thoracic sympa- thetic nerve ganglions responsible for nerve stimu- lation of the sweat glands of the upper limbs. The most significant complication is Horner’s syn- drome, which results from injury to the stellate sympathetic ganglion.7 In a summary of sympa- thectomies in 67 children and adolescents, compli- cations included Horner’s syndrome in 1 patient (1%) and varying degrees of compensatory sweat- ing in 30 patients (45%).8 Despite the evidence from animal studies that sympathectomy can result in facial atrophy, to our knowledge, there were no previous reports of such an association in humans.

Cutis. 2004;73:343-344, 346.

RSD due to nerve injury

According to the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS), RSD is "a chronic pain condition that is believed to be the result of dysfunction in the central or peripheral nervous systems." According to MedicineNet, RSD involves "irritation and abnormal excitation of nervous tissue, leading to abnormal impulses along nerves that affect blood vessels and skin."

Animal studies indicate that norepinephrine, a catecholamine released from sympathetic nerves, acquires the capacity to activate pain pathways after tissue or nerve injury, resulting in RSD. Another theory suggests that RSD, which follows an injury, is caused by triggering an immune response and symptoms associated with inflammation (redness, warmth, swelling). RSD is not thought to have a single cause, but rather multiple causes producing similar symptoms.

http://arthritis.about.com/od/rsd/a/rsd.htm

Limited sympathectomy does not reduce postoperative compensatory sweating

Endoscopic transthoracic for upper limb hyperhidrosis: Limited does not reduce postoperative compensatory sweating:

After sympathectomy in rats there is an increase in osteoclast-mediated bone resorption as well as an increase in the number of osteoclasts on the sympathectomized side

Paper: Osteoclastic Activation In Periapical Lesions After NPY Knockout (IADR/AADR/CADR 87th General Session and Exhibition (April 1-4, 2009)): "After sympathectomy in rats there is an increase in osteoclast-mediated bone resorption as well as an increase in the number of osteoclasts on the sympathectomized side compared to the control. These findings suggest an inhibitory effect of the SNS on bone resorption via osteoclasts. Our objective was to determine if an SNS mediator, neuropeptide Y (NPY), affects osteoclastic activity after pulpal exposure."

Two-stage unilateral versus one-stage bilateral single-port sympathectomy for palmar and axillary hyperhidrosis

Compensatory sweating occurred in 25 (19%) patients of the one-stage group and in 6 (4%) of the two-stage group (P = 0.0001). No patients developed Horner’s syndrome.
CONCLUSIONS: Both two-stage unilateral and one-stage bilateral single-port video-assisted thoracoscopic sympathectomies are effective, safe and minimally invasive procedures. Two-stage unilateral sympathectomy can be performed with a lower occurrence of compensatory sweating, improving permanently the quality of life in patients with palmar and axillary hyperhidrosis. 
http://icvts.oxfordjournals.org/content/16/6/834.full.pdf+html 

sympathectomy led to significant decrements in escape and avoidance responding

PsycNET - Option to Buy: "Chemical sympathectomy and avoidance learning in the rat.
By Di Giusto, E. L.; King, M. G.
Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, Vol 81(3), Dec 1972, 491-500.
Abstract
Reports results of 5 experiments with male Wistar rats (N = 108). Depletion of peripheral sympathetic noradrenaline induced by administration of 6-hydroxydopamine, ip, led to significant decrements in escape and avoidance responding when the required response was difficult, but not when it was relatively easy to acquire. Results are similar to previous findings obtained with adrenal-demedullated Ss. Findings clarify the role of the sympathetic nervous system in the motivation of behavior elicited by aversive stimulation. Implications for 2-process theory and the "Kamin effect," or "learned helplessness," are discussed. (40 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)"

Information about surgery for sweaty hands - decrease in sympathetic activity and increase in vagal activity after ETS

: "Significant decrease in sympathetic activity and increase in vagal activity
Low-frequency power in normalized units, reflecting sympathetic activity, was statistically significantly decreased after sympathectomy. Low-/high-frequency power ratio also showed a significant decrease, indicating relative decrease in sympathetic activity and increase in vagal activity.

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19258086"

Surgeons should be aware of adverse effects such as bradycardia

Sympathectomy - a stress response attenuation: Surgeons should be aware of adverse effects such as bradycardia: "Surgeons should be aware of adverse effects such as bradycardia
The heart rate and systolic blood pressure decreased significantly after T2-T3 ganglionectomy.
A prolonged QT interval was also recorded (p<> 0.05). The decrease was significant in the sympathectomy group.
Our study also, it was revealed that sympathectomy significantly prolonged the QT interval.

Surgeons should be aware of adverse effects such as bradycardia during thoracic sympathectomy. This study suggested that careful monitoring was required during thoracic sympathectomy and early postoperative period.


Orhan YÜCEL, MD
GATA, Department of
Thoracic Surgery, Ankara,
TÜRKİYE/TURKEY"

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LIMITED SYMPATHECTOMY DOES NOT REDUCE SEVERITY OF SIDE-EFFECTS

Sympathectomy - a medical fraud: sympathectomy created imbalance of autonomic activity and functional changes of the intrathoracic organs: "LIMITED SYMPATHECTOMY DOES NOT REDUCE SEVERITY OF SIDE-EFFECTS
On univariate and multivariate analysis, the extent of denervation was not associated with the occurrence or the severity of compensatory sweating.

Compensatory sweating and temporary relief/recurrence were equally considered to be the main causes of dissatisfaction.

CONCLUSION: Compensatory sweating was the most common long-term complication of thoracodorsal sympathectomy primary hyperhidrosis. Its incidence and severity were not associated with the extent of sympathectomy.

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12514588"

acute response to denervation and abrupt release of sympathetic tone following sympathectomy

Sympathectomy - a medical fraud: sympathectomy created imbalance of autonomic activity and functional changes of the intrathoracic organs: "acute response to denervation and abrupt release of sympathetic tone following sympathectomy
"Intraoperative predictability of successful outcome depends on monitoring of the ae response to surgical denervation and abrupt release of sympathetic tone.

Information on the long-term physiological sequelae is emerging rapidly."

DIAGNOSIS AND TREATMENT OF HYPERHIDROSIS, CONCISE REVIEW CLINICIANS
Mayo Clin Proc. • May 2005;80(5):657-666

Muliptle organ failure as a consequence of elective sympathectomy

Sympathectomy - a medical fraud: sympathectomy created imbalance of autonomic activity and functional changes of the intrathoracic organs: "Muliptle organ failure as a consequence of elective sympathectomy
In the post-sympathectomy patient, the abnormal sympathetic skin response may lead to peripheral vascular failure or the reduced cardiac chronotropic response may impair the body’s capacity to compensate shock. These may have contributed to the rapid development of shock and severe multiple organ dysfunction syndrome in this patient.
He had multiple organ dysfunction syndrome develop, with severe renal and hepatic failure, grade II hepatic encephalopathy, and disseminated intravascular coagulation. He responded remarkably well to aggressive supportive measures including ced alkaline diuresis, and he was eventually discharged home after 1 month. The patient was previously a healthy, physically fit, nonsmoker. He worked as a body building trainer and led an active, sporty lifestyle. The only significant medical history was that he had received thoracic sympathectomy axillary hyperhidrosis 4 years ago at another hospital.

http://ats.ctsnetjournals.org/cgi/content/full/84/3/1025"

'via Blog this'

Isointegral mapping revealed that ETS altered electroactivity on the heart

Sympathectomy - a medical fraud: sympathectomy created imbalance of autonomic activity and functional changes of the intrathoracic organs: "Isointegral mapping revealed that ETS altered electroactivity on the heart
The influences on the cardiacautonomic system of the ETS of upper thoracic sympathetic were seen to be of a lesser degree at rest. However, the response to sympathetic stimulation was suppressed after the .
Eur J Cardiothorac Surg 1999;15:194-198"

sympathectomy created imbalance of autonomic activity and functional changes of the intrathoracic organs

Sympathectomy - a medical fraud: sympathectomy created imbalance of autonomic activity and functional changes of the intrathoracic organs: "Acquired cardiovascular disease following Sympathectomy
We found statistically significant differences (P < .05) in both time and frequency domains. Parameters that evaluate global cardiac autonomic activity (total power, SD of normal R-R intervals, SD of average normal R-R intervals) and vagal activity (rhythm corresponding to percentage of normal R-R intervals with cycle greater than 50 ms relative to previous interval, square root of mean squared differences of successive normal R-R intervals, high-frequency power, high-frequency power in normalized units) were statistically significantly increased after sympathectomy. Low-frequency power in normalized units, reflecting sympathetic activity, was statistically significantly decreased after sympathectomy. Low-/high-frequency power ratio also showed a significant decrease, indicating relative decrease in sympathetic activity and increase in vagal activity.

The Journal of Thoracic and Cardiovascular
Volume 137, Issue 3, March 2009, Pages 664-669"

'via Blog this'

Sympathectomy - a medical fraud: sympathectomy created imbalance of autonomic activity and functional changes of the intrathoracic organs

Sympathectomy - a medical fraud: sympathectomy created imbalance of autonomic activity and functional changes of the intrathoracic organs: "After ETS, important impairment of cardiopulmonary exercise function has been observed
Thorax. 1995 Oct;50(10):1097-100."

sympathectomy created imbalance of autonomic activity and functional changes of the intrathoracic organs

Sympathectomy - a medical fraud: sympathectomy created imbalance of autonomic activity and functional changes of the intrathoracic organs: "sympathectomy created imbalance of autonomic activity and functional changes of the intrathoracic organs
Surgical thoracic sympathectomy such as ESD (endoscopic thoracic sympathectic denervation) or heart transplantation can result in an imbalance between the sympathetic and parasympathetic activities and result in functional changes in the intrathoracic organs.
Theree, the procedures affecting sympathetic functions, such as epidural anesthesia, ESD, and heart transplantation, may cause an imbalance between sympathetic and parasympathetic activities (1, 6, 16, 17). Recently, it has been reported that ESD results in functional changes of the intrathoracic organs.


In conclusion, our study demonstrated that ESD adversely affected lung function early after and the BHR was affected by an imbalance of autonomic activity created by bilateral ESD in patients with primary focal hyperhidrosis.
Journal of Asthma, 46:276–279, 2009
http://inmahealthcare.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02770900802660949"

Hyperhidrosis (excessive sweating). DermNet NZ

Hyperhidrosis (excessive sweating). DermNet NZ: "Localised hyperhidrosis may also be due to:

Stroke
Spinal damage
Peripheral damage
Surgical sympathectomy
Neuropathy
Brain tumour
Chronic anxiety disorder"

Right sympathectomy was associated with a 372% increase in PI (p < 0.0001), and left sympathectomy with a 316% increase in PI

Oximetry-derived perfusion index for intraop... [Ann Thorac Surg. 2005] - PubMed - NCBI: "Baseline oximetric waveforms were adequate in all subjects. Right was associated with a 372% increase in PI (p < 0.0001), and left with a 316% increase in PI (p < 0.029). This occurred as early as 1 minute after transection of the sympathetic chain. The PI in the reference probes as well as the hemodynamics remained constant."

Link between skin innervation and neuropathic pain

Nerve conduction studies for large-diameter motor and sensory nerves were normal. This report documents a pure small-fibre sensory neuropathy after prolonged use of linezolid, and the relationship between skin innervation and corresponding neuropathic pain.

Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry 2008;79:97-99

Impaired skin vasomotor reflexes have been found in patients with sympathetic dystrophies, dysautomias, post-regional sympathectomy and diabetic neuropathies

Not surprisingly, diminished vasoconstrictor responses, similar to the current findings, have been found
in patients with sympathetic dystrophies [26], dysautomias [27], post-regional sympathectomy [28] and
diabetic neuropathies [11].


Additionally, there have been a few reports of EM patients benefitting from sympathectomy or neurolitic
irreversible blocks of the lumbar sympathetic ganglia [22,23], while others have found the symptoms of EM to be aggravated by such treatment [24,25], possibly as a result of denervation supersensitivity.
Clinical Science (1999) 96, 507ñ512 (Printed in Great Britain)
Roberta C. LITTLEFORD, Faisel KHAN and Jill J. F. BELCH
University Department of Medicine, Section of Vascular Medicine and Biology, Ninewells Hospital and Medical School, Dundee DD1 9SY, Scotland, U.K.

sympathetic vascular innervation in sympathectomized patients

We measured arterial and venous plasma catecholamines and used laser-Doppler flowmetry to measure cutaneous microcirculatory flow in the sympathectomized and in the intact limbs of 3 patients who had undergone regional sympathectomies. Venous concentrations of norepinephrine, the sympathetic neurotransmitter, exceeded arterial concentrations in the intact limbs--a normal finding--but invariably were less than arterial in the sympathectomized limbs of the same patients, both during baseline conditions and during sympathetic stimulation using tilt, standing and the cold pressor test (mean arteriovenous decrement about 40%). Arterial epinephrine levels exceeded venous levels with or without sympathectomy. Skin microvascular flow rapidly decreased during the cold pressor test and the Valsalva maneuver in the intact but not in the sympathectomized limbs, and spontaneous flow oscillations occurred in the sympathectomized limbs. The results suggest that an arteriovenous increment in plasma norepinephrine reflects local release of norepinephrine from sympathetic nerve endings, whereas removal of circulating catecholamines can occur with or without sympathetic neural impulses. Laser-Doppler flowmetry can measure reflexive sympathetically mediated responses of skin microvascular flow and so can detect sympathetic denervation.
PMID: 3517118 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE

Sympathectomy also results in reduced heart rate variability

"Cardiovascular autonomic neuropathy (CAN) is the most prominent focus because of the life-threatening consequences and the availability of direct tests of cardiovascular autonomic function.. .CAN results from damage due to the autonomic nerve fibers that innervate the heart and blood vessels and results in abnormalities in heart rate control and vascular dynamics. Reduced heart variation is the earliest indicator of CAN."
"CAN is the most studied and clinically important form of DAN. Meta-analyses of published data demonstrate that reduced cardiovascular autonomic function as measured by heart rate variability (HRV) is strongly associated with an increased risk of silent myocardial ischemia and mortality. The determination of the presence of CAN is usually based on a battery of autonomic function tests..."

TECHNICAL REVIEW: Standard of Care - Diabetic Autonomic Neuropathy

Aaron I. Vinik, MD, PHD; Braxton D. Mitchell, PHD
Raelene E. Maser, PHD; Roy Freeman, MD

Reduced Heart Rate Variability associated with incresed mortality

These results support an association between CAN (cardiovascular autonomic neuropathy) and increased risk of mortality. The stronger association observed in studies defining CAN by the presence of two or more abnormalities may be due to more severe autonomic dysfunction in these subjects or a higher frequency of other comorbid complications that contributed to their higher mortality risk. Future studies should evaluate whether early identification of subjects with CAN can lead to a reduction in mortality.

1. Raelene E. Maser, PHD1,
2. Braxton D. Mitchell, PHD2,
3. Aaron I. Vinik, MD, PHD3 and
4. Roy Freeman, MD4

sympathectomy induces several biochemical changes in skeletal muscle

It is concluded that sympathectomy induces several biochemical changes in skeletal muscle which constitute a change and increase in fast myosin light chain synthesis and a corresponding fibre type transformation."Journal: Clinical physiology (Oxford, England) (Clin Physiol), published in ENGLAND.
Reference: 1988-Apr; vol 8 (issue 2) : pp 181-91

Role of sympathoadrenergic mechanisms in arrhythmogenesis

The NA content in the heart was not measured but it is likely to be small at least at the 10-day period. It is known that three days after chemical sympathectomy NA content is only 7% of normal value [6]. Second, the development of adrenoceptor supersensitivity in the transplanted heart was demonstrated clearly with enhanced heart rate responses to NA or propranolol (at Day 10) [1]. As dennervation sensitization increases the arrhythmia susceptibility [6], it is thus possible that, in the presence of receptor supersensitivity, adrenergic activation occurs by either increase in circulating catecholamines and possibly local release of residual NA, which might still have been sufficient to contribute to arrhythmia development.
Role of sympathoadrenergic mechanisms in arrhythmogenesis
Xiao-Jun Du* and Anthony M. Dart
Baker Medical Research Institute, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia 
Cardiovascular Research 1999 43(4):832-834;

Sympathetic nervous system regulation of immunity

"suppressor T cells through an immune-privileged site requires an intact sympathetic nervous system."

Journal of Neuroimmunology
Volume 147, Issues 1-2, February 2004, Pages 87-90

Sympathectomy-induced alterations in immunity

These experiments indicate that an inflammatory response is not likely to be responsible for sympathectomy-induced immune alterations, eliminating a potential confounding factor in interpreting sympathectomy studies.
Brain, behavior and immunity ISSN 0889-1591
2002, vol. 16, n^o1, pp. 33-45 [13
CALLAHAN Tracy A. ; MOYNIHAN Jan A. ;

Sympathectomy interrupts neural messages that ordinarily would travel to many different organs, glands and muscles

Sympathectomy involves dissection of the main sympathetic trunk in the upper thoracic region thus interrupting neural messages that ordinarily would travel to many different organs, glands and muscles. It involves division of adrenergic, cholinergic and sensory fibers which elaborate adrenergic substances during the process of regulating visceral function.
Journal of Applied Sciences Research, 6(6): 659-664, 2010

Vascular sympathetic denervation can lead to degeneration of the smooth muscle of arteries leading to medial arterial calcification and stiffening of the arteries

Sympathetic denervation of the peripheral arterial system may occur quite early in the evolution of neuropathy and has major effects on blood flow and vascular responses and causes structural changes in the arterial wall (Edmonds 2004). Vascular sympathetic denervation can lead to degeneration of the smooth muscle of arteries leading to medial arterial calcification and stiffening of the arteries. This calcification may assume the histological characteristics of bone.

   Unilateral lumbar sympathectomy in humans, both in diabetics and non-diabetics, has been show to result in medial wall calcification on the ipsilateral side (Goebel and Fuessl 1983). Unilateral sympathectomy in animals leads to excess deposition of cholesterol on the operated side and the occurrence of cholesterol sclerosis in the rabbit's aorta was accelerated by removal of the coeliac ganglion (Harrison 1938). Furthermore, in animal models, denervation of smooth muscle leads to striking pathological changes, including atrophy of muscle fibres with foci of degeneration (Kerper and Collier 1926). Arterial calcification in initiated within senescent atrophic smooth muscle (Morgan 1980).

   Medial arterial calcification in the Pima Indians is significantly associated with an increased prevalence of cardiovascular mortality (Everhart et al 1988). Medial calcification may be important factor in development of peripheral vascular disease, which in diabetes shows a predilection for the distal arteries below the knee and is unexplained. Chantelau reported an association of below knee atherosclerosis to medial arterial calcification (Chantelau et al. 1995).

p. 653

Autonomic Failure: A Textbook of Clinical Disorders of the Autonomic Nervous System[Hardcover]

Christopher J. Mathias (Author), Roger Bannister (Author)

• Publisher: Oxford University Press, USA; 5 edition (July 24, 2013)
• Language: English
• ISBN-10: 0198566344
• ISBN-13: 978-0198566342

sympathectomy leads to fluctuation of vasoconstriction alternated with vasodilation in an unstable fashion. Following sympathectomy the involved extremity shows regional hyper - and hypothermia

"To quote Nashold, referring to sympathectomy, "Ill- advised surgery may tend to magnify the entire symptom complex"(38). Sympathectomy is aimed at achieving vasodilation. The neurovascular instability (vacillation and instability of vasoconstrictive function), leads to fluctuation of vasoconstriction alternated with vasodilation in an unstable fashion (39). Following sympathectomy the involved extremity shows regional hyper - and hypothermia in contrast, the blood flow and skin temperature on the non- sympathectomized side are significantly lower after exposure to a cold environment (39). This phenomenon may explain the reason for spread of CRPS. In the first four weeks after sympathectomy, the Laser Doppler flow study shows an increased of blood flow and hyperthermia in the extremity (40). Then, after four weeks, the skin temperature and vascular perfusion slowly decrease and a high amplitude vasomotor constriction develops reversing any beneficial effect of surgery (39). According to Bonica , "about a dozen patients with reflex sympathetic dystrophy (RSD) in whom I have carried out preoperative diagnostic sympathetic block with complete pain relief, sympathectomy produced either partial or no relief (40)"

Chronic Pain: 

Reflex Sympathetic Dystrophy : Prevention and Management

Hooshang Hooshmand

CRC PressINC, 1993 - Medical - 202 pages

Seven cases of enlargement of the breast following sympathectomy for hyperhidrosis

The  phenomenon  of  hyperhidrosis  is  a  pathological  state  caused  by  unknown  stimulus  of  the  sympathetic  nervous  system.  When  a  variety  of  conservative  treatments have  failed,  surgery  which  involves  the  removal  of  some  ganglia  of  the  cervical  sympathetic  chain,  is  the  treatment  of  choice.  In  the  last  four  years  we  operated  on 253  patients  for  palmar  hyperhidrosis  using  the  transaxillary  approach  only. Recently,  a  new  side  effect  of  surgery  has  come  to  our  attention.  This  phenomenon  is enlargement  of  the  breast  on  the  operated  side.  Our  series  show  seven  cases  (2.4%)  of  women  operated  for  palmar  hyperhidrosis  who  manifested  this phenomenon,  two  of  them  bilaterally.  The  enlargement  of  the  breast  was  found  usually  by  the  second  follow-­up  visit  after  operation  when,  in  most  cases,  the  patient mentioned  it.Examination  of  the  breast  revealed  enlargement  of  a  few  centimeters  which  in  several  patients  required  a  change  to  a  larger  brassiere  size.  In  both  of our  patients  who  underwent  bilateral  surgery,  the  breasts  enlarged  until  they  were  equal  in  size.  The  women  then  did  not  complain  further.  


Enlargement  of  the  Breast-­-­A  New  Side  Effect  of  Transaxillary  Cervical  Sympathectomy:  Case  Report Kott,  Itamar;;  Hauptman,  Eli;;  Zelkovsky,  Avigdor;;  Reiss,  Raphael.  Vascular  and  Endovascular  Surgery 20.1  (Jan  1986):  50-­54. 

Several reports have dealt with the alteration of antibody responses of spleen and lymph nodes following sympathectomy

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8528891

Vascular responses altered substantially after sympathectomy

Vascular responses to warming were studied in hemiplegic patients and after sympathectomy, using venous occlusion plethysmography of foot and leg. Comparisons were made with corresponding age groups. The pattern of response was essentially unchanged in hemiplegic patients, but was altered substantially where sympathetic pathways had been interrupted.

Vasomotor Responses in the Extremities of Subjects with Various Neurologic Lesions

I. Reflex Responses to Warming

1. WALTER REDISCH, M.D.; 
2. FRANCISCO T. TANGCO, M.D.; 
3. LOTHAR WERTHEIMER, M.D.; 
4. ARTHUR J. LEWIS, M.D.; 
5. J. MURRAY STEELE, M.D.; 
6. Dorothy Andrews, B.A.,

http://circ.ahajournals.org/content/15/4/518.abstract

Satisfaction rates of patients following sympathectomy significantly decreased in the long term

Studies by ETS surgeons have claimed an initial satisfaction rate around 85-95% with at least 2%-19% regretting the surgery and up to 51% of the patients complaining about decreased quality of life.192021One study shows a satisfaction rate as low as 28.6. Most patients report various adverse reactions as a result of the surgery. However, ETS surgeon Samuel S. Ahn of UCLA claims "100% success with no negative side effects".22

A large study of psychiatric patients treated with this surgery showed significant reductions in fear, alertness and arousal. (Teleranta, Pohjavaara, et al. 2003, 2004). Arousal is essential to consciousness, in regulating attention and information processing, memory and emotion.23 This study also proves what many patients have claimed, that the surgery caused psychological changes. 

https://www.meducation.net/community_notes/7283-Endoscopic-thoracic-sympathectomy

Medical Education Network on Sympathectomy

ETS is most commonly used to treat severe hyperhidrosis of the upper body, Raynaud's phenomenon, and facial blushing.

There are reports of ETS being used to achieve cerebral revascularization for patients with moyamoya disease,1 and to treat headaches, hyperactive bronchial tubes,2long QT syndrome345 and other conditions.

Thoracic sympathectomy can alter many bodily functions, including sweating,6 vascular responses,7heart rate,89 heart stroke volume,1011thyroid, baroreflex,lung volume,12 pupil dilation, skin temperature, goose bumps and other aspects of the autonomic nervous system, like the fight-or-flight response. It may diminish the body's physical reaction to exercise.131415

Sympathectomy involves division of adrenergic, cholinergic and sensory fibers which elaborate adrenergic substances during the process of regulating visceral function.16 It involves dissection of the main Sympathetic trunk in the upper thoracic region of the sympathetic nervous system, thus interrupting neural messages that ordinarily would travel to many different organs, glands and muscles. It is via these nerves of the autonomic nervous system that the brain is able to make adjustments in the body in response to changing conditions in the environment, changing emotional states, level of exercise, and other factors to maintain the body's homeostasis.

https://www.meducation.net/community_notes/7283-Endoscopic-thoracic-sympathectomy